Pengertian dan Fungsi-Fungsi Manajemen (Definition and Functions of Management)

 Fungsi-Fungsi Manajemen

Pengertian dan Fungsi-Fungsi Manajemen (Definition and Functions of Management)

A. Pengertian Manajemen (Definition of Management) Kata Manajemen berasal dari bahasa Prancis kuno menagement, yang memiliki arti seni melaksanakan dan mengatur. Manajemen belum memiliki definisi yang mapan dan diterima secara universal. Kata manajemen mungkin berasal dari bahasa Italia (1561) maneggiare yang berarti “mengendalikan,” terutamanya “mengendalikan kuda” yang berasal dari bahasa latin manus yang berati “tangan”. Bahasa Prancis mengadopsi kata ini dari bahasa Inggris menjadi ménagement, yang memiliki arti seni melaksanakan dan mengatur. Mary Parker Follet, misalnya, mendefinisikan manajemen sebagai seni menyelesaikan pekerjaan melalui orang lain. Definisi ini berarti bahwa seorang manajer bertugas mengatur dan mengarahkan orang lain untuk mencapai tujuan organisasi. Ricky W. Griffin mendefinisikan manajemen sebagai sebuah proses perencanaan, pengorganisasian, pengkoordinasian, dan pengontrolan sumber daya untuk mencapai sasaran (goals) secara efektif dan efesien. Efektif berarti bahwa tujuan dapat dicapai sesuai dengan perencanaan, sementara efisien berarti bahwa tugas yang ada dilaksanakan secara benar, terorganisir, dan sesuai dengan jadwal.Istilah manajemen, terjemahannya dalam bahasa Indonesia hingga saat ini belum ada keseragaman. Selanjutnya, bila kita mempelajari literatur manajemen, maka akan ditemukan bahwa istilah manajemen mengandung tiga pengertian yaitu : 1. Manajemen sebagai suatu proses, 2. Manajemen sebagai kolektivitas orang-orang yang melakukan aktivitas manajemen, 3. Manajemen sebagai suatu seni (Art) dan sebagai suatu ilmu pengetahuan (Science) Menurut pengertian yang pertama, yakni manajemen sebagai suatu proses, berbeda-beda definisi yang diberikan oleh para ahli.

• Encylopedia of the Social Sience dikatakan bahwa manajemen adalah suatu proses dengan mana pelaksanaan suatu tujuan tertentu diselenggarakan dan diawasi.
• Hilman mengatakan bahwa manajemen adalah fungsi untuk mencapai sesuatu melalui kegiatan orang lain dan mengawasi usaha-usaha individu untuk mencapai tujuan yang sama.

Menurut pengertian yang kedua, manajemen adalah kolektivitas orang-orang yang melakukan aktivitas manajemen. Jadi dengan kata lain, segenap orang-orang yang melakukan aktivitas manajemen dalam suatu badan tertentu disebut manajemen. Menurut pengertian yang ketiga, manajemen adalah seni (Art) atau suatu ilmu pnegetahuan. Mengenai inipun sesungguhnya belum ada keseragaman pendapat, segolongan mengatakan bahwa manajemen adalah seni dan segolongan yang lain mengatakan bahwa manajemen adalah ilmu. Sesungguhnya kedua pendapat itu sama mengandung kebenarannya. Menurut G.R. Terry manajemen adalah suatu proses atau kerangka kerja, yang melibatkan bimbingan atau pengarahan suatu kelompok orang-orang kearah tujuan-tujuan organisasional atau maksud-maksud yang nyata. Manajemen adalah suatu ilmu pengetahuan maupun seni. Seni adalah suatu pengetahuan bagaimana mencapai hasil yang diinginkan atau dalm kata lain seni adalah kecakapan yang diperoleh dari pengalaman, pengamatan dan pelajaran serta kemampuan untuk menggunakan pengetahuan manajemen. Menurut Mary Parker Follet manajemen adalah suatu seni untuk melaksanakan suatu pekerjaan melalui orang lain. Definisi dari mary ini mengandung perhatian pada kenyataan bahwa para manajer mencapai suatu tujuan organisasi dengan cara mengatur orang-orang lain untuk melaksanakan apa saja yang pelu dalam pekerjaan itu, bukan dengan cara melaksanakan pekerjaan itu oleh dirinya sendiri. Menurut James A.F.Stoner, manajemen adalah suatu proses perencanaan, pengorganisasian, kepemimpinan, dan pengendalian upaya anggota organisasi dan menggunakan semua sumber daya organisasi untuk mencapai tujuan yang telah ditetapkan. Manajemen  adalah Suatu keadaan terdiri dari proses yang ditunjukkan oleh garis (line) mengarah kepada proses perencanaan, pengorganisasian, kepemimpinan, dan pengendalian, yang mana keempat proses tersebut saling mempunyai fungsi masing-masing untuk mencapai suatu tujuan organisasi. B. Fungsi-Fungsi Manajemen (Management Functions) Fungsi manajemen adalah elemen-elemen dasar yang akan selalu ada dan melekat di dalam proses manajemen yang akan dijadikan acuan oleh manajer dalam melaksanakan kegiatan untuk mencapai tujuan. Fungsi manajemen pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh seorang industrialis Perancis bernama Henry Fayol pada awal abad ke-20. Ketika itu, ia menyebutkan lima fungsi manajemen, yaitu merancang, mengorganisir, memerintah, mengordinasi, dan mengendalikan. Namun saat ini, kelima fungsi tersebut telah diringkas menjadi empat, yaitu:

1. Perencanaan (planning) adalah memikirkan apa yang akan dikerjakan dengan sumber yang dimiliki. Perencanaan dilakukan untuk menentukan tujuan perusahaan secara keseluruhan dan cara terbaik untuk memenuhi tujuan itu. Manajer mengevaluasi berbagai rencana alternatif sebelum mengambil tindakan dan kemudian melihat apakah rencana yang dipilih cocok dan dapat digunakan untuk memenuhi tujuan perusahaan. Perencanaan merupakan proses terpenting dari semua fungsi manajemen karena tanpa perencanaan, fungsi-fungsi lainnya tak dapat berjalan.
2. Pengorganisasian (organizing) dilakukan dengan tujuan membagi suatu kegiatan besar menjadi kegiatan-kegiatan yang lebih kecil. Pengorganisasian mempermudah manajer dalam melakukan pengawasan dan menentukan orang yang dibutuhkan untuk melaksanakan tugas-tugas yang telah dibagi-bagi tersebut. Pengorganisasian dapat dilakukan dengan cara menentukan tugas apa yang harus dikerjakan, siapa yang harus mengerjakannya, bagaimana tugas-tugas tersebut dikelompokkan, siapa yang bertanggung jawab atas tugas tersebut, pada tingkatan mana keputusan harus diambil.
3. Pengarahan (directing) adalah suatu tindakan untuk mengusahakan agar semua anggota kelompok berusaha untuk mencapai sasaran sesuai dengan perencanaan manajerial dan usaha

fungsi-fungsi manajemen adalah sebagai berikut: Planning Berbagai batasan tentang planning dari yang sangat sederhana sampai dengan yang sangat rumit. Misalnya yang sederhana saja merumuskan bahwa perencanaan adalah penentuan serangkaian tindakan untuk mencapai suatu hasil yang diinginkan. Menurut Stoner Planning adalah proses menetapkan sasaran dan tindakan yang perlu untuk mencapai sasaran. Organizing Organizing (organisasi) adalah dua orang atau lebih yang bekerja sama dalam cara yang terstruktur untuk mencapai sasaran spesifik atau sejumlah sasaran. Leading Pekerjaan leading meliputi :

• Mengambil keputusan.
• Mengadakan komunikasi agar ada saling pengertian antara manajer dan bawahan.
• Memberi semangat, inspirasi, dan dorongan kepada bawahan supaya mereka bertindak.
• Memeilih orang-orang yang menjadi anggota kelompoknya, serta memperbaiki pengetahuan dan sikap-sikap bawahan agar mereka terampil dalam usaha mencapai tujuan yang ditetapkan.

Directing/Commanding Directing atau Commanding adalah fungsi manajemen yang berhubungan dengan usaha memberi bimbingan, saran, perintah-perintah atau instruksi kepada bawahan dalam melaksanakan tugas masing-masing, agar tugas dapat dilaksanakan dengan baik dan benar-benar tertuju pada tujuan yang telah ditetapkan semula. Motivating Motivating atau pemotivasian kegiatan merupakan salah satu fungsi manajemen berupa pemberian inspirasi, semangat dan dorongan kepada bawahan, agar bawahan melakukan kegiatan secara suka rela sesuai apa yang diinginkan oleh atasan. Coordinating Coordinating atau pengkoordinasian merupakan salah satu fungsi manajemen untuk melakukan berbagai kegiatan agar tidak terjadi kekacauan, percekcokan, kekosongan kegiatan, dengan jalan menghubungkan, menyatukan dan menyelaraskan pekerjaan bawahan sehingga terdapat kerja sama yang terarahdalam upaya mencapai tujuan organisasi. Controlling Controlling atau pengawasan, sering juga disebut pengendalian adalah salah satu fungsi manajemen yang berupa mengadakan penilaian, bila perlu mengadakan koreksi sehingga apa yang dilakukan bawahan dapat diarahkan ke jalan yang benar dengan maksud dengan tujuan yang telah digariskan semula. Reporting Adalah salah satu fungsi manajemen berupa penyampaian perkembangan atau hasil kegiatan atau pemberian keterangan mengenai segala hal yang bertalian dengan tugas dan fungsi-fungsi kepada pejabat yang lebih tinggi. Staffing Staffing merupakan salah satu fungsi manajemen berupa penyusunan personalia pada suatu organisasi sejak dari merekrut tenaga kerja, pengembangannya sampai dengan usaha agar setiap tenaga memberi daya guna maksimal kepada organisasi. Forecasting Forecasting adalah meramalkan, memproyrksikan, atau mengadakan taksiran terhadap berbagai kemungkinan yang akan terjadi sebelum suatu rancana yang lebih pasti dapat dilakukan. Tool of Management Untuk mencapai tujuan yang telah ditentukan diperlukan alat-alat sarana (tools). Tools merupakan syarat suatu usaha untuk mencapai hasil yang ditetapkan. Tools tersebut dikenal dengan 6M, yaitu men, money, materials, machines, method, dan markets. Man merujuk pada sumber daya manusia yang dimiliki oleh organisasi. Dalam manajemen, faktor manusia adalah yang paling menentukan. Manusia yang membuat tujuan dan manusia pula yang melakukan proses untuk mencapai tujuan. Manajemen timbul karena adanya orang-orang yang berkerja sama untuk mencapai tujuan. Money atau Uang merupakan salah satu unsur yang tidak dapat diabaikan. Uang merupakan alat tukar dan alat pengukur nilai. Besar-kecilnya hasil kegiatan dapat diukur dari jumlah uang yang beredar dalam perusahaan. Oleh karena itu uang merupakan alat (tools) yang penting untuk mencapai tujuan karena segala sesuatu harus diperhitungkan secara rasional. Material terdiri dari bahan setengah jadi (raw material) dan bahan jadi. Dalam dunia usaha untuk mencapai hasil yang lebih baik, selain manusia yang ahli dalam bidangnya juga harus dapat menggunakan bahan/materi-materi sebagai salah satu sarana. Sebab materi dan manusia tidaki dapat dipisahkan, tanpa materi tidak akan tercapai hasil yang dikehendaki. Machine atau Mesin digunakan untuk memberi kemudahan atau menghasilkan keuntungan yang lebih besar serta menciptakan efesiensi kerja. Metode adalah suatu tata cara kerja yang memperlancar jalannya pekerjaan manajer. Sebuah metode saat dinyatakan sebagai penetapan cara pelaksanaan kerja suatu tugas dengan memberikan berbagai pertimbangan-pertimbangan kepada sasaran, fasilitas-fasilitas yang tersedia dan penggunaan waktu, serta uang dan kegiatan usaha. Market atau pasar adalah tempat di mana organisasi menyebarluaskan (memasarkan) produknya. Memasarkan produk sudah barang tentu sangat penting sebab bila barang yang diproduksi tidak laku, maka proses produksi barang akan berhenti. Artinya, proses kerja tidak akan berlangsung. Oleh sebab itu, penguasaan pasardalam arti menyebarkan hasilproduksi merupakan faktor menentukan dalam perusahaan. C. Tingkatan Manajemen (Manajemen Level)   Tingkatan manajemen dalam organisasi akan membagi tingkatan manajer menjadi 3 tingkatan : 1. Manajer lini garis-pertama (first line) adalah tingkatan manajemen paling rendah dalam suatu organisasi yang memimpin dan mengawasi tenaga-tenaga operasional. Dan mereka tidak membawahi manajer yang lain. 2. Manajer menengah (Middle Manager) adalah manajemen menengah dapat meliputi beberapa tingkatan dalam suatu organisasi. Para manajer menengah membawahi dan mengarahkan kegiatan-kegiatan para manajer lainnya kadang-kadang juga karyawan operasional. 3. Manajer Puncak (Top Manager) terdiri dari kelompok yang relative kecil, manager puncak bertanggung jawab atas manajemen keseluruhan dari organisasi. Manajer adalah seseorang yang bekerja melalui orang lain dengan mengoordinasikan kegiatan-kegiatan mereka guna mencapai sasaran organisasi.

Tingkatan  J p

 

 
Piramida jumlah karyawan pada organisasi dengan struktur tradisional, berdasarkan tingkatannya.Pada organisasi berstruktur tradisional, manajer sering dikelompokan menjadi manajer puncak, manajer tingkat menengah, dan manajer lini pertama (biasanya digambarkan dengan bentuk piramida, di mana jumlah karyawan lebih besar di bagian bawah daripada di puncak). Berikut ini adalah tingkatan manajer mulai dari bawah ke atas:

• Manejemen lini pertama (first-line management), dikenal pula dengan istilah manajemen operasional, merupakan manajemen tingkatan paling rendah yang bertugas memimpin dan mengawasi karyawan non-manajerial yang terlibat dalam proses produksi. Mereka sering disebut penyelia (supervisor), manajer shift, manajer area, manajer kantor, manajer departemen, atau mandor (foreman).
• Manajemen tingkat menengah (middle management), mencakup semua manajemen yang berada di antara manajer lini pertama dan manajemen puncak dan bertugas sebagai penghubung antara keduanya. Jabatan yang termasuk manajer menengah di antaranya kepala bagian, pemimpin proyek, manajer pabrik, atau manajer divisi.
• Manajemen puncak (top management), dikenal pula dengan istilah executive officer. Bertugas merencanakan kegiatan dan strategi perusahaan secara umum dan mengarahkan jalannya perusahaan. Contoh top manajemen adalah CEO (Chief Executive Officer), CIO (Chief Information Officer), dan CFO (Chief Financial Officer).

Meskipun demikian, tidak semua organisasi dapat menyelesaikan pekerjaannya dengan menggunakan bentuk piramida tradisional ini. Misalnya pada organisasi yang lebih fleksibel dan sederhana, dengan pekerjaan yang dilakukan oleh tim karyawan yang selalu berubah, berpindah dari satu proyek ke proyek lainnya sesuai dengan dengan permintaan pekerjaan.

Peran manajer

Henry Mintzberg, seorang ahli riset ilmu manajemen, mengemukakan bahwa ada sepuluh peran yang dimainkan oleh manajer di tempat kerjanya. Ia kemudian mengelompokan kesepuluh peran itu ke dalam tiga kelompok, yaitu:

1. Peran antarpribadi Merupakan peran yang melibatkan orang dan kewajiban lain, yang bersifat seremonial dan simbolis. Peran ini meliputi peran sebagai figur untuk anak buah, pemimpin, dan penghubung.
2. Peran informasional Meliputi peran manajer sebagai pemantau dan penyebar informasi, serta peran sebagai juru bicara.
3. Peran pengambilan keputusan Yang termasuk dalam kelompok ini adalah peran sebagai seorang wirausahawan, pemecah masalah, pembagi sumber daya, dan perunding.

Mintzberg kemudian menyimpulkan bahwa secara garis besar, aktivitas yang dilakukan oleh manajer adalah berinteraksi dengan orang lain.

Keterampilan manajer

Gambar ini menunjukan keterampilan yang dibutuhkan manajer pada setiap tingkatannya.

Robert L. Katz pada tahun 1970-an mengemukakan bahwa setiap manajer membutuhkan minimal tiga keterampilan dasar. Ketiga keterampilan tersebut adalah:

1. Keterampilan konseptual (conceptional skill) Manajer tingkat atas (top manager) harus memiliki keterampilan untuk membuat konsep, ide, dan gagasan demi kemajuan organisasi. Gagasan atau ide serta konsep tersebut kemudian haruslah dijabarkan menjadi suatu rencana kegiatan untuk mewujudkan gagasan atau konsepnya itu. Proses penjabaran ide menjadi suatu rencana kerja yang kongkret itu biasanya disebut sebagai proses perencanaan atau planning.
2. Keterampilan berhubungan dengan orang lain (humanity skill) Selain kemampuan konsepsional, manajer juga perlu dilengkapi dengan keterampilan berkomunikasi atau keterampilan berhubungan dengan orang lain, yang disebut juga keterampilan kemanusiaan. Komunikasi yang persuasif harus selalu diciptakan oleh manajer terhadap bawahan yang dipimpinnya. Dengan komunikasi yang persuasif, bersahabat, dan kebapakan akan membuat karyawan merasa dihargai dan kemudian mereka akan bersikap terbuka kepada atasan. Keterampilan berkomunikasi diperlukan, baik pada tingkatan manajemen atas, menengah, maupun bawah.
3. Keterampilan teknis (technical skill) Keterampilan ini pada umumnya merupakan bekal bagi manajer pada tingkat yang lebih rendah. Keterampilan teknis ini merupakan kemampuan untuk menjalankan suatu pekerjaan tertentu, misalnya menggunakan program komputer, memperbaiki mesin, membuat kursi, akuntansi dan lain-lain.

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4.3.2 Plug-in Restrictions. You will not integrate or use Adobe Reader with any plug-in software not developed in accordance with the Adobe Integration Key License Agreement, more information can be found at http://www.adobe.com/go/rikla_program.

4.3.3 Disabled Features. Adobe Reader may contain features or functionalities that are hidden or appear disabled or “grayed out” (the “Disabled Features”). Disabled Features will activate only when opening a PDF document that was created using enabling technology available only from Adobe. You will not access, or attempt to access, any Disabled Features other than through the use of such enabling technologies, nor will you rely on Adobe Reader to create a feature substantially similar to any Disabled Feature or otherwise circumvent the technology that controls activation of any such feature. For more information on disabled features, please refer to http://www.adobe.com/go/readerextensions.  

4.4 Notices. You shall not alter or remove any copyright or other proprietary notice that appears on or in the Software.

4.5 No Modification or Reverse Engineering. You shall not modify, adapt, translate, or create derivative works based upon the Software. You shall not reverse engineer, decompile, disassemble, or otherwise attempt to discover the source code of the Software. If you are located in the European Union, please refer to the additional terms at the end of this agreement under the header “European Union Provisions,” in Section 16.

5. Transfer.

You may not rent, lease, sublicense, assign, or transfer your rights in the Software, or authorize all or any portion of the Software to be copied onto another user’s Computer except as may be expressly permitted by this agreement. You may, however, transfer all your rights to Use the Software to another person or legal entity provided that: (a) you also transfer (i) this agreement, and (ii) the Software and all other software or hardware bundled or pre-installed with the Software, including all copies, Updates, and prior versions, to such person or entity, (b) you retain no copies, including backups and copies stored on a Computer, and (c) the receiving party accepts the terms and conditions of this agreement and any other terms and conditions upon which you obtained a valid license to the Software. Notwithstanding the foregoing, you may not transfer education, pre-release, or not for resale copies of the Software.

6. Intellectual Property Ownership, Reservation of Rights.

The Software and any authorized copies that you make are the intellectual property of Adobe and its suppliers. The structure, organization, and code of the Software are the valuable intellectually property (e.g. trade secrets and confidential information) of Adobe and its suppliers. The Software is protected by law, including without limitation the copyright laws of the United States and other countries, and by international treaty provisions. Except as expressly stated herein, this agreement does not grant you any intellectual property rights in the Software and all rights not expressly granted are reserved by Adobe and its suppliers.

7. Connectivity and Privacy. You acknowledge and agree to the following:

7.1 Use of PDF Files. When you Use the Software to open a PDF file that has been enabled to display ads, your Computer may connect to a website operated by Adobe, an advertiser, or other third party. Your Internet Protocol address (“IP Address”) is sent when this happens. The party hosting the site may use technology to send (or “serve”) advertising or other electronic content that appears in or near the opened PDF file. The website operator may also use JavaScript, web beacons (also known as action tags or single-pixel gifs), and other technologies to increase and measure the effectiveness of advertisements and to personalize advertising content. Your communication with Adobe websites is governed by the Adobe Online Privacy Policy found at http://www.adobe.com/go/privacy (“Adobe Online Privacy Policy”). Adobe may not have access to or control over features that a third party may use, and the information practices of third party websites are not covered by the Adobe Online Privacy Policy.

7.2 Updating. If your Computer is connected to the Internet, the Software may, without additional notice, check for Updates that are available for automatic download and installation to your Computer and let Adobe know the Software is successfully installed. For Reader, Updates may be automatically downloaded but not installed without additional notice unless you change your preferences to accept automatic installation. Only non-personally identifying information is transmitted to Adobe when this happens, except to the extent that IP Addresses may be considered personally identifiable in some jurisdictions. The use of such information, including your IP Address, as provided by the auto update process is governed by the Adobe Online Privacy Policy. Please consult the Documentation for information about changing default update settings, or online at http://www.adobe.com/go/settingsmanager for Flash Player, http://www.adobe.com/go/update_details_url (or successor website) for Reader, and http://www.adobe.com/go/air_update_details and http://airdownload.adobe.com/air/applications/SettingsManager/SettingsManager.air for Adobe AIR.

7.3 Local Storage. Flash Player and Adobe AIR may allow third parties to store certain information on your Computer in a local data file known as a local shared object. The type and amount of information that the third party application requests to be stored in a local shared object can vary by application and such requests are solely controlled by the third party. You can find more information on local shared objects at http://www.adobe.com/go/flashplayer_security. For more information on how to limit or control the storage of local shared objects on your Computer, please visit http://www.adobe.com/go/settmgr_storage_en.

7.4 Settings Manager. Flash Player and Adobe AIR may cause certain user settings to be stored on your Computer as a local shared object. These settings are associated with the instance of Flash Player or Adobe AIR on your Computer, but do not contain personally identifiable information associated with you, and allow you to configure certain settings within the Flash Player including the ability to limit third parties from storing local shared objects. You can find more information on how to configure your version of Flash Player or Adobe AIR, including how to disable local shared objects in the Settings Manager for Flash Player, at http://www.adobe.com/go/settingsmanager, or http://airdownload.adobe.com/air/applications/SettingsManager/SettingsManager.air for Adobe AIR.

7.5 Peer Assisted Networking Technology. Adobe Flash Player and Adobe AIR runtimes provide the ability for applications built by third parties to connect to an Adobe Server or Service and permit direct communication between two Adobe Runtime clients or to connect an Adobe Runtime client as part of a peer or distributed network that allows a portion of your resources, such as network bandwidth, to be made directly available to other participants. Prior to joining such peer or distributed network, you will be provided with the opportunity to accept such connectivity. To manage Peer Assisted Networking settings, please go to the Settings Manager at http://www.adobe.com/go/settmgr_networking_en. You can find more information on Peer Assisted Networking at http://www.adobe.com/go/RTMFP.

7.6 Content Protection Technology. If you Use the Adobe Runtimes to access content that has been protected with Adobe Flash Media Rights Management Server or Flash Access software (“Content Protection”), in order to let you play the protected content, the Software may automatically request media usage rights and individualization rights from a rights server on the Internet, and may download and install required components of the Software, including any available Content Protection Updates. You can find more information on Content Protection at http://www.adobe.com/go/protected_content.

7.7 Use of Adobe Online Services. If your Computer is connected to the Internet, the Software may, without additional notice and on an intermittent or regular basis, facilitate your access to content and services that are hosted on websites maintained by Adobe or its affiliates (“Adobe Online Services”). Examples of such Adobe Online Services might include, but are not limited to: Acrobat.com. In some cases an Adobe Online Service might appear as a feature or extension within the Software even though it is hosted on a website. In some cases, access to an Adobe Online Service might require a separate subscription or other fee in order to access it, and/or your assent to additional terms of use. Adobe Online Services might not be available in all languages or to residents of all countries and Adobe may, at any time and for any reason, modify or discontinue the availability of any Adobe Online Service. Adobe also reserves the right to begin charging a fee for access to or use of an Adobe Online Service that was previously offered at no charge. If your Computer is connected to the Internet, the Software may, without additional notice, update downloadable materials from these Adobe Online Services so as to provide immediate availability of these Adobe Online Services even when you are offline. When the Software connects to the Internet as a function of an Adobe Online Service, your IP Address, user name, and password may be sent to Adobe’s servers and stored by Adobe in accordance with the Additional Terms of Use or the “help” menu in the Software. This information may be used by Adobe to send you transactional messages to facilitate the Adobe Online Service. Adobe may display in-product marketing to provide information about the Software and other Adobe products and Services, including but not limited to Adobe Online Services, based on certain Software specific features including but not limited to, the version of the Software, including without limitation, platform version, version of the Software, and language. For further information about in-product marketing, please see the “help” menu in the Software. Whenever the Software makes an Internet connection and communicates with an Adobe website, whether automatically or due to explicit user request, the Adobe Online Privacy Policy shall apply. Additionally, unless you are provided with separate terms of use at that time, the Adobe.com Terms of Use (http://www.adobe.com/go/terms) shall apply. Please note that the Adobe Privacy Policy allows tracking of website visits and it addresses in detail the topic of tracking and use of cookies, web beacons, and similar devices.

8. Third Party Offerings. You acknowledge and agree to the following:

8.1 Third Party Offerings. The Software may allow you to access and interoperate with third party content, software applications, and data services, including rich Internet applications (“Third Party Offerings”). Your access to and use of any Third Party Offering, including any goods, services, or information, is governed by the terms and conditions respecting such offerings and copyright laws of the United States and other countries. Third Party Offerings are not owned or provided by Adobe. You agree that you will not use any of such Third Party Offerings in violation of copyright laws of the United States or other countries.Adobe or the third party may at any time, for any reason, modify or discontinue the availability of any Third Party Offerings. Adobe does not control, endorse, or accept responsibility for Third Party Offerings. Any dealings between you and any third party in connection with a Third Party Offerings, including such party’s privacy policies and use of your personal information, delivery of and payment for goods and services, and any other terms, conditions, warranties, or representations associated with such dealings, are solely between you and such third party. Third Party Offerings might not be available in all languages or to residents of all countries and Adobe or the third party may, at any time and for any reason, modify or discontinue the availability of any Third Party Offerings. 

8.2 EXCEPT AS EXPRESSLY AGREED BY ADOBE OR ITS AFFILIATES OR A THIRD PARTY IN A SEPARATE AGREEMENT, YOUR USE OF ADOBE AND THIRD PARTY OFFERINGS IS AT YOUR OWN RISK UNDER THE WARRANTY AND LIABILITY LIMITATIONS OF SECTIONS 1.1 AND 10.

9. Digital Certificates. You acknowledge and agree to the following:

9.1 Use. Adobe AIR uses digital certificates to help you identify the publisher of Adobe AIR applications created by third parties. Additionally, Adobe AIR uses digital certificates to establish the identity of servers accessed via the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol, including access via HTTPS. Adobe Reader uses digital certificates to sign and validate signatures within PDF documents and to validate certified PDF documents. Adobe Runtimes use digital certificates to secure protected content from unauthorized usage. Your Computer may connect to the Internet at the time of validation of a digital certificate in order to download current certificate revocation lists (CRLs) or to update the list of digital certificates. This access may be made both by the Software and by applications based on the Software. Digital certificates are issued by third party certificate authorities, including Adobe Certified Document Services (CDS) vendors listed at http://www.adobe.com/go/partners_cds and Adobe Approved Trust List (AATL) vendors listed at http://www.adobe.com/go/aatl, and individualization vendors found at http://www.adobe.com/go/protected_content (collectively “Certification Authorities”), or can be self-signed.

9.2 Terms and Conditions. Purchase, use and reliance upon digital certificates are the responsibility of you and a Certification Authority. Before you rely upon any certified document, digital signature, or Certification Authority services, you should review the applicable terms and conditions under which the relevant Certification Authority provides services, including, for example, any subscriber agreements, relying party agreements, certificate policies, and practice statements. See the links on http://www.adobe.com/go/partners_cds for information about Adobe’s CDS vendors and http://www.adobe.com/go/aatl for information about Adobe’s AATL vendors.

9.3 Acknowledgement. You agree that (a) a digital certificate may have been revoked prior to the time of verification, making the digital signature or certificate appear valid when in fact it is not, (b) the security or integrity of a digital certificate may be compromised due to an act or omission by the signer of the document, the applicable Certification Authority, or any other third party, and (c) a certificate may be a self-signed certificate not provided by a Certification Authority. YOU ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR DECIDING WHETHER OR NOT TO RELY ON A CERTIFICATE. UNLESS A SEPARATE WRITTEN WARRANTY IS PROVIDED TO YOU BY A CERTIFICATION AUTHORITY, YOU USE DIGITAL CERTIFICATES AT YOUR SOLE RISK.

9.4 Third Party Beneficiaries. You agree that any Certification Authority you rely upon is a third party beneficiary of this agreement and shall have the right to enforce this agreement in its own name as if it were Adobe.

9.5 Indemnity. You agree to hold Adobe and any applicable Certification Authority (except as expressly provided in its terms and conditions) harmless from any and all liabilities, losses, actions, damages, or claims (including all reasonable expenses, costs, and attorneys fees) arising out of or relating to any use of, or reliance on, by you or any third party that receives a document from you with a digital certificate, any service of such authority, including, without limitation (a) reliance on an expired or revoked certificate, (b) improper verification of a certificate, (c) use of a certificate other than as permitted by any applicable terms and conditions, this agreement, or applicable law; (d) failure to exercise reasonable judgment under the circumstances in relying on issuer services or certificates, or (e) failure to perform any of the obligations as required in the terms and conditions related to the services.

10. Limitation of Liability.

IN NO EVENT WILL ADOBE, ITS SUPPLIERS, OR CERTIFICATION AUTHORITIES BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ANY DAMAGES, CLAIMS OR COSTS WHATSOEVER INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, OR ANY LOST PROFITS OR LOST SAVINGS, EVEN IF AN ADOBE REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH LOSS, DAMAGES, OR CLAIMS. THE FOREGOING LIMITATIONS AND EXCLUSIONS APPLY TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW IN YOUR JURISDICTION. ADOBE’S AGGREGATE LIABILITY AND THAT OF ITS SUPPLIERS AND CERTIFICATION AUTHORITIES UNDER OR IN CONNECTION WITH THIS AGREEMENT SHALL BE LIMITED TO THE AMOUNT PAID FOR THE SOFTWARE, IF ANY. Nothing contained in this agreement limits Adobe’s liability to you in the event of death or personal injury resulting from Adobe’s negligence or for the tort of deceit (fraud). Adobe is acting on behalf of its suppliers and Certification Authorities for the purpose of disclaiming, excluding, and/or limiting obligations, warranties, and liability as provided in this agreement, but in no other respects and for no other purpose. For further information, please see the jurisdiction specific information at the end of this agreement, if any, or contact Adobe’s Customer Support Department.

11. Export Rules.

You agree that the Software will not be shipped, transferred, or exported into any country or used in any manner prohibited by the United States Export Administration Act or any other export laws, restrictions, or regulations (collectively the “Export Laws”). In addition, if the Software is identified as export controlled items under the Export Laws, you represent and warrant that you are not a citizen, or otherwise located within, an embargoed nation (including without limitation Iran, Syria, Sudan, Cuba, and North Korea) and that you are not otherwise prohibited under the Export Laws from receiving the Software. All rights to Use the Software are granted on condition that such rights are forfeited if you fail to comply with the terms of this agreement.

12. Governing Law.

If you are a consumer who uses the Software for only personal non-business purposes, then this agreement will be governed by the laws of the state in which you purchased the license to use the Software. If you are not such a consumer, this agreement will be governed by and construed in accordance with the substantive laws in force in: (a) the State of California, if a license to the Software is obtained when you are in the United States, Canada, or Mexico; or (b) Japan, if a license to the Software is obtained when you are in Japan; or (c) Singapore, if a license to the Software is obtained when you are in a member state of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the People’s Republic of China (including Hong Kong S.A.R. and Macau S.A.R.), Taiwan, or the Republic of Korea; or (d) England, if a license to the Software is obtained when you are in any jurisdiction not described above. The respective courts of Santa Clara County, California when California law applies, Tokyo District Court in Japan, when Japanese law applies, and the competent courts of London, England, when the law of England applies, shall each have non-exclusive jurisdiction over all disputes relating to this agreement. When Singapore law applies, any dispute arising out of or in connection with this agreement, including any question regarding its existence, validity, or termination, shall be referred to and finally resolved by arbitration in Singapore in accordance with the Arbitration Rules of the Singapore International Arbitration Centre (“SIAC”) for the time being in force, which rules are deemed to be incorporated by reference in this section. There shall be one arbitrator, selected jointly by the parties. If the arbitrator is not selected within thirty (30) days of the written demand by a party to submit to arbitration, the Chairman of the SIAC shall make the selection. The language of the arbitration shall be English. Notwithstanding any provision in this agreement, Adobe or you may request any judicial, administrative, or other authority to order any provisional or conservatory measure, including injunctive relief, specific performance, or other equitable relief, prior to the institution of legal or arbitration proceedings, or during the proceedings, for the preservation of its rights and interests or to enforce specific terms that are suitable for provisional remedies. The English version of this agreement will be the version used when interpreting or construing this agreement. This agreement will not be governed by the conflict of law rules of any jurisdiction or the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, the application of which is expressly excluded.

13. General Provisions.

If any part of this agreement is found void and unenforceable, it will not affect the validity of the balance of this agreement, which shall remain valid and enforceable according to its terms. This agreement shall not prejudice the statutory rights of any party dealing as a consumer. This agreement may only be modified by a writing signed by an authorized officer of Adobe. Updates may be licensed to you by Adobe with additional or different terms. This is the entire agreement between Adobe and you relating to the Software and it supersedes any prior representations, discussions, undertakings, communications, or advertising relating to the Software.

14. Notice to U.S. Government End Users.

For U.S. Government End Users, Adobe agrees to comply with all applicable equal opportunity laws including, if appropriate, the provisions of Executive Order 11246, as amended, Section 402 of the Vietnam Era Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974 (38 USC 4212), and Section 503 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, and the regulations at 41 CFR Parts 60-1 through 60-60, 60-250, and 60-741. The affirmative action clause and regulations contained in the preceding sentence shall be incorporated by reference in this agreement. 

15. Compliance with Licenses.

If you are a business or organization, you agree that upon request from Adobe or Adobe’s authorized representative, you will, within thirty (30) days, fully document and certify that use of any and all Software at the time of the request is in conformity with your valid licenses from Adobe.

16. European Union Provisions.

Nothing included in this agreement (including Section 4.5) shall limit any non-waivable right to decompile the Software that you may enjoy under mandatory law. For example, if you are located in the European Union (EU), you may have the right upon certain conditions specified in the applicable law to decompile the Software if it is necessary to do so in order to achieve interoperability of the Software with another software program, and you have first asked Adobe in writing to provide the information necessary to achieve such interoperability and Adobe has not made such information available. In addition, such decompilation may only be done by you or someone else entitled to use a copy of the Software on your behalf. Adobe has the right to impose reasonable conditions before providing such information. Any information supplied by Adobe or obtained by you, as permitted hereunder, may only be used by you for the purpose described herein and may not be disclosed to any third party or used to create any software which is substantially similar to the expression of the Software or used for any other act which infringes Adobe or its licensors’ copyright.

17. Specific Provisions and Exceptions.

17.1 Limitation of Liability for Users Residing in Germany and Austria.

17.1.1 If you obtained the Software in Germany or Austria, and you usually reside in such country, then Section 10 does not apply. Instead, subject to the provisions in Section 17.1.2, Adobe’s statutory liability for damages shall be limited as follows: (a) Adobe shall be liable only up to the amount of damages as typically foreseeable at the time of entering into the license agreement in respect of damages caused by a slightly negligent breach of a material contractual obligation and (b) Adobe shall not be liable for damages caused by a slightly negligent breach of a non-material contractual obligation.

17.1.2 The aforesaid limitation of liability shall not apply to any mandatory statutory liability, in particular, to liability under the German Product Liability Act, liability for assuming a specific guarantee or liability for culpably caused personal injuries.

17.1.3 You are required to take all reasonable measures to avoid and reduce damages, in particular to make back-up copies of the Software and your computer data subject to the provisions of this agreement.

If you have any questions regarding this agreement, or if you wish to request any information from Adobe, please use the address and contact information included with this product or via the web at http://www.adobe.com to contact the Adobe office serving your jurisdiction.

Adobe, Adobe AIR, AIR, Authorware, Flash, Reader, and Shockwave are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Adobe Systems Incorporated in the United States and/or other countries.

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